The Impact of Working Conditions and Personality Traits on the Job Satisfaction of Media Professionals

Abstract:

This article uses the happy-productive worker thesis as a starting point for assessing the chances that a media system is performing well. Personality traits, work conditions, and job-satisfaction levels of individuals from different media occupations in Switzerland (N = 259) were collected using standardized instruments from personnel psychology. Media workers more distanced from actual media production are more satisfied with their jobs than the working population, while those closer to production are less satisfied. A regression analysis identifies autonomy as the most important driver of job satisfaction for “media producers,” while “media seller’s” satisfaction is driven by the match of their work with personality extroversion and the perception of adequate compensation. This suggests that the drivers of job satisfaction differ according to the actual job role in the media industry.

Keywords: Switzerland, Labor, Production, Management, Identity

Technological, economic, and regulatory changes in recent years have changed not only the structure of the media industry but also the job roles of media professionals in different production-related occupations. Cost cutting in newspaper firms has turned many permanent employees into freelancers who must be creative as they learn to tackle “forced entrepreneurialism”[2] at the same time. Likewise, in audiovisual entertainment, producers increasingly require marketing skills because broadcasters no longer fully finance commissioned series.[3] To some extent, recent changes in the media industry can be described as a process of further commodification of the commercialized media workplace where commercial pressures are increasingly dominating content decisions.[4] Thus, potentially, some of the alienated media professionals[5] are ever more estranged from the work they are doing. Media professionals regularly show a high level of intrinsic motivation for their emotional and affective labor.[6] They “care about their product”[7] and are often even willing to perform unpaid labor to gain access to meaningful jobs.[8]

Therefore, they most likely differ substantially from the general working population in terms of their personalities. Changes in the industry add to the problem of specific requirements in the job profiles of creative professionals. Individuals’ personalities and skill sets might have matched job requirements when they first entered the business, but some might not fit anymore. The economic “creative destruction”[9] deriving from digitization and subsequent commodification[10] could also damage media professionals’ job satisfaction because these advances do not offer the increased efficiency that theoretically accompanies creative destruction from an economic welfare perspective. Barriers of entry are reduced, but at the cost of precarious working conditions[11] and reduced creative freedom.[12] This is not only relevant for individual media professionals but also for society. If the happy-productive worker thesis[13] holds true, society relies on motivated and satisfied media workers to produce useful and relevant media content catered to an informed and responsible society.

Loosely following the concept of effort-reward imbalance,[14] this article assumes that the fit between personality traits and job requirements is a foundational aspect of job satisfaction and subsequently of the quality of output. There are a number of definitions and conceptualizations formed in an effort to describe what is understood to be personality. This article is informed by the five-factor model,[15] which is based in the trait-psychology tradition. This model claims that there are consistent and enduring individual differences in ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that can be measured by questionnaires. The five factors were derived from factor analysis of numerous measurements of different traits and represent the highest aggregate of the diverse traits:

• Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident)
• Extroversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)
• Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious)
• Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached)
• Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easygoing/careless)

Personality traits do not change much for working-age adults,[16] so changes in job requirements should have a strong influence on job satisfaction.

On the one hand, since the early Hawthorne studies,[17] research at the intersection of psychology, management, and health has addressed questions of how to select the right personnel and how to ensure that the relationship is productive while maintaining satisfaction and health. On the other hand, media and communication studies have often addressed the issue of journalist satisfaction[18] and whether the media addresses the needs of society. However, at present, both strands of literature (introduced in the first section of this paper) have neglected each other and have failed to build on one another’s insights. This study tries to fill this gap by applying standardized instruments from personnel psychology to different media occupations as described in the second section. Because no historical data is available, it isn’t possible to trace changes concerning the fit between personality traits and job requirements directly. However, a cross-sectional analysis of different media occupations also allows for some conclusions since they have been variably affected by media change. The model is tested with data from a standardized survey of 259 media professionals in Switzerland. The results allow for two main conclusions discussed in the final section of this paper: First, it is possible to identify media occupations that have low job satisfaction levels and thus risk impeding quality output. This would be a possible starting point for pro-quality regulatory measures focusing on the individual. Second, comparisons between different occupations allow for preliminary assumptions about the effects of media change on media production at the individual level. This could be the starting point for further research on the interaction between media change, media professionals and media quality, albeit from a commercial or normative perspective.

How Happiness Makes Workers More Productive

The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has been extensively studied in organizational behavior research, usually in relation to the happy-productive worker hypothesis.[19] The underlying assumption in these studies is the idea that happier employees will be more productive. Of course happy is a rather ill-defined term that can have many meanings. Frequently, happiness is interpreted as a trait that is constant in a given timeframe. Thus, happiness is translated as satisfaction or, in a narrow sense, job satisfaction[20] and, in a wider sense, psychological well-being.[21] Alternatively, some studies interpret happiness as an emotional state or, more precisely, positive affect.[22] There is an ongoing debate about which measures are most suitable, whether effects are to be found immediately or intertemporally,[23] and whether the happy-productive worker thesis is an overrated common-sense theory.[24] However, two meta-analyses condensing the results of other studies have found a moderate mean correlation between satisfaction and performance of r = 0.31 and r = 0.30.[25]

Thus, the question arises as to which factors inform job satisfaction. Certainly, some factors are objective qualities of the workplace, such as job characteristics,[26] but individual predispositions also play their part. Barrick and Mount[27] and Hogan and Holland[28] showed in their respective meta-analyses that personality traits have an influence on performance. According to Barrick and Mount, conscientiousness is an especially robust predictor of performance across different measures and occupations. By contrast, another meta-analysis[29] found that only extroversion (positive) and neuroticism (negative) are important and generalizable predictors of performance. More importantly, all three aforementioned studies found that the influences of different personality traits vary between different occupations, which suggests a match between personality traits and job requirements is a necessary component of job satisfaction. Extroversion and agreeableness could, for example, predict job performance for salespeople and managers—occupations that involve frequent interaction or cooperation with others—but not for skilled workers or police officers.[30] Similarly, and more recently, Rauch and Frese showed that for entrepreneurs, personality traits matching their tasks led to higher rates of success.[31] Most likely, this is a general pattern, although so far no study has investigated beneficial personality traits in media occupations.

To some extent, studies dealing with creative professionals are transferable: positive emotions have been shown to contribute to creative performance.[32] Some studies have referred to the fact that creative production is regularly done in teams of devoted and intrinsically motivated individuals who might have their own agendas. Robert and Cheung have found a negative relationship between group conscientiousness and group performance on creative tasks,[33] thus qualifying Barrick and Mount’s results that showed conscientiousness as a universal predictor of success. Research on team performance suggests that the diversity within a team contributes more to the performance than the addition of individuals with similar personality traits,[34] a finding that supports the motley-crew property of creative production put forth by Caves.[35] Moreover, Strickland and Towler suggest that inspiration works best when personality differences are strong between leaders and subordinates.[36]

Usually, people choose occupations that are in line with their personalities and avoid those that do not suit them. An introverted person, for instance, is unlikely to become a TV presenter. If the dominant logic within an industry changes due to technological or organizational developments, job roles will change as well. This might mean that individuals who initially chose jobs and organizations fitting their personalities[37] might find themselves in positions in which their personalities are at odds with new demands. Williamson, Lounsbury, and Han could show this for engineers who need to develop an entrepreneurial mindset and sales skills.[38] Digitization has drastically changed some media occupations. Fifteen year ago, a photojournalist spent much of his or her time performing the physical task of developing the pictures—a widely obsolete undertaking today. In entertainment production, broadcasters have outsourced many tasks to independent producers, so the job requires more entrepreneurial skills today.[39] Chances are that some individuals have problems adapting to the new demands of the workplace, resulting in decreased job satisfaction and, subsequently, decreased quality of output.

In the media context, the question of whether job satisfaction has an impact on the quality of the output has never really been tested. Stamm and Underwood showed that a journalist’s perception of increasing or decreasing newspaper quality had an impact on that person’s job satisfaction.[40] However, they did not test whether this job satisfaction in turn had an impact on quality independent from the newsroom policies they were studying.

Research on job satisfaction in the context of the media industry has by and large neglected existing work in the field of occupational psychology and medicine, creating ad hoc measures instead of using existing scales.[41] The studies of Norwegian workaholic journalists[42] and the psychological health of Nigerian journalists[43] are rare exceptions. Personality traits of media professionals have thus far not been analyzed as a factor of job satisfaction in the media industry.

While there is much discussion in occupational and organizational psychological literature on measuring “happiness” (trait vs. state), the outcome variable “performance” has never been questioned. This might be accurate for manual tasks, or for commercial occupations, where performance can be measured in monetary value. In the media industry, however, the performance variable is more ambiguous, since media not only serves an economic function but also cultural, societal and political functions.[44] Some performances might serve functions differently at varying levels of quality. Thus, measuring the operationalization of performance in terms of, for example, number of photographs taken or number of listeners gained always captures performance in a very narrow sense by aligning it to just one function of the media.

This study does not discuss the meaning of job performance of media professionals from a societal perspective (normative quality of the output) since this would mean subsuming the decade-long discussion on media quality.[45] However, it does introduce standard measures into the field of communicator studies that help apply research on job satisfaction of media professionals to the general literature on job satisfaction. It will also show that different media occupations feature different levels of satisfaction and require different personality traits.

Research Questions

The aim of this study is twofold: First, it will describe the differences between various media occupations and the working population in terms of job satisfaction and personality. While media professionals are regularly described as individuals who are intrinsically motivated and at times display an accentuated creative personality, their actual personality in psychological terms has never been measured. Thus, the first set of research questions is:

• How do media occupations differ from the working population and from each other in terms of personality traits? (RQ1a)
• How do media occupations differ from the working population and from each other in terms of their levels of job satisfaction? (RQ1b)

Second, existing studies on work satisfaction and personality[46] are replicated in the media context in order to gauge the relative influence of personality traits and working conditions. Thus, the second question is:

• To what extent do personality traits and working conditions explain job satisfaction in different media occupations? (RQ2)

Method

An online survey of German-speaking media professionals in Switzerland from seven different occupations was conducted in the spring of 2013. For comparisons to the working population, data from the Swiss Household Panel[47] (SHP) was used. To contextualize this study, a description of the Swiss media industry is necessary. The Swiss media market is small and fairly concentrated. Only three publishers dominate the newspaper industry: two family-owned companies (Tamedia and Ringier) and one loosely connected to a political party (NZZ). The audiovisual sector is dominated by the public-service broadcaster both in terms of audience share and in term of commissioning. Therefore, although fairly concentrated, the Swiss media market is still not as commercialized as media markets in many other countries.

Results

Discussion

Working conditions are important: the job satisfaction of media producers is strongly driven by autonomy, which confirms the theoretical suggestion by Scott[73] and Bilton and Leary[74] about the relevance of autonomy and a “risk space” for creative professionals. In contrast, media sellers rely less on autonomy and are more economic in their motivation since an imbalance of perceived effort and reward reduces their job satisfaction. Personality traits seem to be just as important, with neuroticism (negative) and extroversion (positive) showing the strongest influence. Moreover, the personality traits of media professionals are not as different from the general working population in Switzerland, as anticipated. These results are somewhat in contrast to the work of Fietze,[75] who found all five personality traits to be important for the job satisfaction of German workers, albeit with a similarly low contribution to the explained variance (R2 = .06). The minute distinctions between the personality profiles of media sellers compared to that of the media producers somewhat contrasts with the findings of Barrick and Mount,[76] who suggest that different jobs call for different personality profiles.

Two explanations can be put forward: first, media occupations are not clearly defined. Usually, one does not need formal qualifications, and in practice, two individuals with the same job title might do very different work in different media organizations. Media work is often less professionalized than other occupations; thus, often media professionals need to have a diversified rather than specialized skill set. Second, perceptions of media work as creative work might be misleading. While media production is a creativity-intensive process, much of the daily routine is not creative at all. Thus, a creative personality is only needed for “pockets of creativity.”[77] During the rest of the time, the relatively high levels of conscientiousness observed might be more helpful in coping with the daily routine. To test whether these explanations hold true, a replication of this study in another media market would be worthwhile. Swiss media organizations are comparatively small and thus have only a limited division of labor. In larger markets with larger organizations, the relationship between personality traits and potentially more specialized job roles might be more pronounced.

Digitization and commercialization have changed the actual work in different media occupations in recent years. Usually, individuals choose jobs that suit their interests and their personalities. If the job changes, chances are that the match between the individual and the job requirements will be affected. Thus, there should be interaction effects between personality traits and work conditions. However, no interaction effects could be found in the regression analysis. This could mean that media professionals are not specialized creatives but rather flexible all-around workers who can easily adapt to changing work conditions. However, studies on photojournalists by Sperlich and Klein-Avraham and Reich describe frictions in the adaptation process.[78] An alternative explanation of the absence of interaction effects could be found in the composition of the sample. Possibly the “misfits” whose personalities no longer match with the work conditions have already left for another job and are thus not represented in the sample. Eventually, the operationalization of working conditions might be too abstract to capture this change. Therefore, one should not jump to the conclusion that digitization and commercialization did not have an effect on media professional job satisfaction. Rather, the comparison of satisfaction levels between different media occupations suggests that the media sellers who are more profit-oriented and distanced from actual content production show higher levels of satisfaction. On the contrary, the occupation most affected by digitization is closest to art production—photojournalism has the lowest satisfaction levels. From a societal perspective, it seems problematic that jobs with a stronger commercial orientation would be more rewarding than those with a more creative orientation. This can be interpreted as an indicator of a media system that emphasizes financial success over societal utility. Creative media professionals may be not provided with work conditions that they consider satisfying, and thus they might have a lower-than-possible performance.

Strictly speaking, the results of this study are limited to the Swiss media; however, there is no clear indication as to why these results should not apply to other markets. In terms of the comparison with the general working population, some caution is needed because personality traits were not available for all individuals in the SHP—only those who were recently added to the panel. It is not entirely clear whether their reported personality traits are representative of the rest of the Swiss working population.

In this study the actual performance of media professionals was not measured; the argument, rather, relied on generalized results from meta-analysis that established a robust correlation between job satisfaction and performance.[79] Future research should focus on the question of performance: how can different aspects of performance that relate to different functions of the media be measured adequately? In a commercialized media system, a dominance of the “suits” over the “creatives” can be expected.[80] Measures of financial performance are easier to operationalize than those of societal utility or creative novelty. Extrapolating from the results of this study, job satisfaction and performance are related; however, this connection is mediated by the objective of the job and hence the performance measure. A preliminary conclusion suggests that media organizations with a broader understanding of performance should trust their employees and give them the autonomy they need to be satisfied and thus productive in a societal sense as well.

1. M. Bjørn von Rimscha is Professor of Mass Communication and Media Business at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz (Germany). Before that, he was Senior Research and Teaching Associate at the Institute of Mass Communication and Media Research at the University of Zurich (Switzerland). His most recent book is Medienökonomie (2015) a German-language introduction to media economics together with Gabriele Siegert.

2. Kate Oakley, “Good Work? Rethinking Cultural Entrepreneurship,” in Handbook of Management and Creativity, ed. Chris Bilton and Stephen Cummings (Cheltenham: Elgar, 2014), 145–59.

3. M. B. von Rimscha, Patrik Wikström, and Lucia Naldi, “European Audio-visual Production Companies Adapting to Strategic Challenges,” in International Perspectives on Business Innovation and Disruption in the Creative Industries, ed. Robert DeFillippi and Patrik Wikström (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2014), 66–87.

4. Robert G. Picard, “Money, Media, and the Public Interest,” in The Press, ed. Geneva Overholser (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 337–50.

5. Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, Dialektik der Aufklärung (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1969).

6. David Hesmondhalgh and Sarah Baker, “Creative Work and Emotional Labour in the Television Industry,” Theory, Culture & Society 25, nos. 7–8 (2008): 97–118.

7. Richard E. Caves, Creative Industries: Contracts between Art and Commerce (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000).

8. E.g., Sabina Siebert and Fiona Wilson, “All Work and No Pay: Consequences of Unpaid Work in the Creative Industries,” Work, Employment & Society 27, no. 4 (2013), and Neil Percival and David Hesmondhalgh, “Unpaid Work in the UK Television and Film Industries: Resistance and Changing Attitudes,” European Journal of Communication 29, no. 2 (2014): 188–203.

9. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Kapitalismus, Sozialismus und Demokratie, 7th ed. (Tübingen: Franke, 1993).

10. Vincent Mosco, “Brand New World? Globalization, Cyberspace, and the Politics of Convergence,” in Public Broadcasting and the Public Interest, ed. Michael P. McCauley et al., Media, Communication, and Culture in America (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2003), 25–40.

11. Regina Sperlich, “The Mixed Blessing of Autonomy in Digital Cultural Production: A Study on Filmmaking, Press Photography and Architecture in Austria,” European Journal of Communication 26, no. 2 (2011): 133–46.

12. Mark Deuze, Media Work. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007).

13. See Russell Cropanzano and Thomas A. Wright, “When a 'Happy' Worker Is Really a 'Productive' Worker: A Review and Further Refinement of the Happy-Productive Worker Thesis,” Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 53, no. 3 (2001): 182–99, doi:10.1037/1061-4087.53.3.182, and John M. Zelenski, Steven A. Murphy, and David A. Jenkins, “The Happy-Productive Worker Thesis Revisited,” Journal of Happiness Studies 9, no. 4 (2008): 521–37.

14. Johannes Siegrist, “Adverse Health Effects of High-Effort/Low-Reward Conditions,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1, no. 1 (1996): 27–41.

15. Paul T. Costa Jr. and Robert R. McCrae, “The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R),” in The Sage Handbook of Personality Theory and Assessment, ed. Gregory J. Boyle, Gerald Matthews and Donald H. Saklofske, vol. 2, Personality Measurement and Testing (London: Sage, 2008), 179–99.

16. Sarah E. Hampson and Lewis R. Goldberg, “A First Large Cohort Study of Personality Trait Stability over the 40 years between Elementary School and Midlife,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, no. 4 (2006): 763–79.

17. Fritz J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, Management and the Worker: An Account of a Research Program Conducted by the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago, 16th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).

18. E.g., Randal A. Beam, “Organizational Goals and Priorities and the Job Satisfaction of US Journalists,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 83, no. 1 (2006): 169–85; Keith Stamm and Doug Underwood, “The Relationship of Job Satisfaction to Newsroom Policy Changes,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 70, no. 3 (1993): 528–41; George Pollard, “Job Satisfaction among Newsworkers: The Influence of Professionalism, Perceptions of Organizational Structure, and Social Attributes,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72, no. 3 (1995): 682–97; and George L. Daniels and C. A. Hollifield, “Times of Turmoil: Short- and Long-Term Effects of Organizational Change on Newsroom Employees,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 79, no. 3 (2002): 661–80.

19. See, e.g., Barry M. Staw, “Organizational Psychology and the Pursuit of the Happy/Productive Worker,” California Management Review 28, no. 4 (1986): 40–53; Barry M. Staw and Sigal G. Barsade, “Affect and Managerial Performance: A Test of the Sadder-but-Wiser vs. Happier-and-Smarter Hypotheses,” Administrative Science Quarterly 38, no. 2 (1993): 304–31; Gerald E. Ledford, “Happiness and Productivity Revisited,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 20, no. 1 (1999): 25–30; Thomas A. Wright and Barry M. Staw, “Affect and Favorable Work Outcomes: Two Longitudinal Tests of the Happy-Productive Worker Thesis,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 20, no. 1 (1999): 1–23; Cropanzano and Wright, “When a 'Happy' Worker Is Really a 'Productive' Worker”; Timothy A. Judge et al., “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review,” Psychological Bulletin 127, no. 3 (2001): 376–407; and Zelenski, Murphy, and Jenkins, “The Happy-Productive Worker Thesis Revisited,”

20. See Michael Argyle, “Do Happy Workers Work Harder? The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Job Performance,” in How Harmful Is Happiness? Consequences of Enjoying Life or Not, ed. Ruut Veenhoven (Rotterdam: Universitaire Pers Rotterdam, 1989); Judge et al., “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship.” While not referring to a psychological perspective on “happiness,” recent studies on media work have expounded upon the problems of the term. Case studies like the one presented by Hesmondhalgh and Baker, “Creative Work and Emotional Labour,” contrast fun during production with a generally precarious working condition.

21. See Toon W. Taris and Paul J. Schreurs, “Well-Being and Organizational Performance: An Organizational-Level Test of the Happy-Productive Worker Hypothesis,” Work & Stress 23, no. 2 (2009): 120–36, and Thomas A. Wright and Russell Cropanzano, “The Role of Psychological Well-Being in Job Performance: A Fresh Look at an Age-Old Quest,” Organizational Dynamics 33, no. 4 (2004): 338–51.

22. See Sonja Lyubomirsky, Laura King, and Ed Diener, “The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?,” Psychological Bulletin 131, no. 6 (2005): 803–55, and Wright and Staw, “Affect and Favorable Work Outcomes.”

23. Zelenski, Murphy, and Jenkins, “The Happy-Productive Worker Thesis Revisited.”

24. Cynthia D. Fisher, “Why Do Lay People Believe That Satisfaction and Performance Are Correlated? Possible Sources of a Commonsense Theory,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 24, no. 6 (2003): 753–77.

25. M. M. Petty, G. W. McGee, and J. W. Cavender, “A Meta-Analysis of the Relationships Between Individual Job Satisfaction and Individual Performance,” Academy of Management Review 9, no. 4 (1984): 712–21; Judge et al., “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship.”

26. See Arnold B. Bakker and Evangelia Demerouti, “The Job Demands-Resources Model: State of the Art,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 22, no. 3 (2007): 309–28, and Stephen E. Humphrey, Jennifer D. Nahrgang, and Frederick P. Morgeson, “Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-analytic Summary and Theoretical Extension of the Work Design Literature,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 5 (2007): 1332–56.

27. Murray R. Barrick and Michael K. Mount, “The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance: A Meta-analysis,” Personnel Psychology 44, no. 1 (1991): 1–26.

28. Joyce Hogan and Brent Holland, “Using Theory to Evaluate Personality and Job-Performance Relations: A Socioanalytic Perspective,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 1 (2003): 100–12.

29. Timothy A. Judge, Daniel Heller, and Michael K. Mount, “Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 87, no. 3 (2002): 376–407.

30. Barrick and Mount, “The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance.”

31. Andreas Rauch and Michael Frese, “Let's Put the Person Back into Entrepreneurship Research: A Meta-analysis on the Relationship Between Business Owners' Personality Traits, Business Creation, and Success,” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 16, no. 4 (2007): 353–86.

32. Nora Madjar, Greg R. Oldham, and Michael G. Pratt, “There's No Place Like Home? The Contributions of Work and Nonwork Creativity Support to Employees' Creative Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 45, no. 4 (2002): 757–67.

33. Christopher Robert and Yu H. Cheung, “An Examination of the Relationship Between Conscientiousness and Group Performance on a Creative Task,” Journal of Research in Personality 44, no. 2 (2010): 221–31.

34. Susan Sung Eun Chung and Jason Meneely, “Profiling Group Dynamics within Business and Design Student Teams: Relationships among Personality Traits, Problem-Solving Styles, and Creative Performance,” Journal of Interior Design 37, no. 3 (2012): 23–45.

35. Caves, Creative Industries.

36. Susan Strickland and Annette Towler, “Correlates of Creative Behaviour: The Role of Leadership and Personal Factors,” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 28, no. 1 (2011): 41–51.

37. John Schaubroeck, Daniel C. Ganster, and James R. Jones, “Organization and Occupation Influences in the Attraction-Selection-Attrition Process,” Journal of Applied Psychology 83, no. 6 (1998): 869–91.

38. Jeanine M. Williamson, John W. Lounsbury, and Lee D. Han, “Key Personality Traits of Engineers for Innovation and Technology Development,” Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 30, no. 2 (2013): 157–68.

39. von Rimscha, Wikström, and Naldi, “European Audio-Visual Production Companies Adapting to Strategic Challenges.”

40. Stamm and Underwood, “The Relationship of Job Satisfaction to Newsroom Policy Changes.”

41. See, e.g., Kathleen M. Ryan, “The Performative Journalist: Job Satisfaction, Temporary Workers and American Television News,” Journalism 10, no. 5 (2009): 647–64, and Lori A. Bergen and David H. Weaver, “Job Satisfaction of Daily Newspaper Journalists and Organization Size,” Newspaper Research Journal 9, no. 2 (1988): 1–13.

42. Ronald J. Burke and Stig Matthiesen, “Workaholism among Norwegian Journalists: Antecedents and Consequences,” Stress and Health 20, no. 5 (2004): 301–8.

43. A. N. Ofili et al., “Assessment of Job Satisfaction, Job Stress and Psychological Health Of Journalists in South-South, Nigeria,” International Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Research 3, no. 3 (2014): 209–18.

44. M. Bjørn von Rimscha and Gabriele Siegert, Medienökonomie: Eine problemorientierte Einführung (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2015).

45. See, e.g., Karl E. Rosengren, Mats Carlson, and Yael Tågerud, “Quality in Programming: Views From the North,” Studies in Broadcasting 27 (1991): 21–80; Irene Costera Meijer, “The Public Quality of Popular Journalism: Developing a Normative Framework,” Journalism Studies 2, no. 2 (2001): 189–205; Wolfgang Seufert, “Programmaufwand, Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit öffentlich-rechtlicher Rundfunkangebote,” Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft 54, no. 3 (2006): 365–85; and Harald Rau, Qualität in einer Ökonomie der Publizistik: Betriebswirtschaftliche Lösungen für die Redaktion (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2007).

46. Simon Fietze, “Arbeitszufriedenheit und Persönlichkeit: 'Wer schaffen will, muss fröhlich sein!'” SOEP papers 388 (2011).

47. The Swiss Household Panel is a survey conducted within the framework of the Swiss Foundation for Research in Social Sciences (FORS) and funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation.

48. Heide Glaesmer et al., “The German Version of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS),” European Journal of Psychological Assessment 27, no. 2 (2011): 127–32.

49. Ed Diener et al., “The Satisfaction with Life Scale,” Journal of Personality Assessment 49, no. 1 (1985): 71–75.

50. Jochen Fahrenberg et al., Fragebogen zur Lebenszufriedenheit (FLZ): Handweisung (Göttingen: Horgrefe, 2000)

51. E.g., Fietze, “Arbeitszufriedenheit und Persönlichkeit” and Michael Ertel et al., “Adverse Psychosocial Working Conditions and Subjective Health in Freelance Media Workers,” Work & Stress 19, no. 3 (2005): 293–99.

52. Sebastian Stegmann et al., “Der Work Design Questionnaire: Vorstellung und Erste Validierung Einer Deutschen Version,” Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O 54, no. 1 (2010): 1–28.

53. Frederick P. Morgeson and Stephen E. Humphrey, “The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and Validating a Comprehensive Measure for Assessing Job Design and the Nature of Work,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 6 (2006): 1321–39.

54. Arbeitsstelle für Vergleichende Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Europäische Konsumgeschichte: Zur Gesellschafts- und Kulturgeschichte des Konsums (18. bis 20. Jahrhundert) (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 1997).

55. Beatrice Rammstedt and Oliver P. John, “Kurzversion des Big Five Inventory (BFI-K),” Diagnostica 51, no. 4 (2005):195–206.

56. Kathrin Junghanns and Thomas Hanitzsch, “Deutsche Auslandskorrespondenten im Profil,” Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft 54, no. 3 (2006): 412–29.

57. See, e.g., Ulf Hannerz, Foreign News: Exploring the World of Foreign Correspondents 2000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004) and Angela Dressler, Nachrichtenwelten: Hinter den Kulissen der Auslandsberichterstattung / eine Ethnographie (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2008).

58. John Freeman, “Personality as an Indicator of Success: A Study of NPPA Contest Winners,” Visual Communication Quarterly 11, nos. 1–2 (2004): 18–22.

59. Laura Grindstaff, The Money Shot: Trash, Class, and the Making of TV Talk Shows (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).

60. Marianna Patrona, “Conversationalization and Media Empowerment in Greek Television Discussion Programs,” Discourse & Society 17, no. 1 (2006): 15.

61. Gil Greengross and Geoffrey F. Miller, “The Big Five Personality Traits of Professional Comedians Compared to Amateur Comedians, Comedy Writers, and College Students,” Personality and Individual Differences 47, no. 2 (2009): 79–83.

62. Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).

63. Barrick and Mount, “The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance.”

64. J. R. Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, “Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 16, no. 2 (1976): 250–79.

65. Richard L. Kohr and Paul A. Games, “Robustness of the Analysis of Variance, the Welch Procedure and a Box Procedure to Heterogeneous Variances,” Journal of Experimental Education 43, no. 1 (1974): 61–69.

66. Sperlich, “The Mixed Blessing of Autonomy in Digital Cultural Production,” and Inbal Klein-Avraham and Zvi Reich, “Out of the Frame: A Longitudinal Perspective on Digitization and Professional Photojournalism,” New Media & Society (2014): n. p.

67. Zhou Xiao, “How Digital Technology Impacts International News Communication: From Integrated Cost to Power Structure,” in International News in the Digital Age: East-West Perceptions of a New World Order, ed. Judith Clarke and Michael L Bromley (New York: Routledge, 2012).

68. Andrew E. Clark, “Job Satisfaction and Gender: Why Are Women so Happy at Work?,” Labour Economics 4, no. 4 (1997): 341–72.

69. David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist in the 1990s: US News People at the End of an Era (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996).

70. Fietze, “Arbeitszufriedenheit und Persönlichkeit.”

71. Barrick and Mount, “The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance.”

72. Fietze, “Arbeitszufriedenheit und Persönlichkeit.”

73. Randall K. Scott, “Creative Employees: A Challenge to Managers,” Journal of Creative Behavior 29, no. 1 (1995): 64–71.

74. Chris Bilton and Ruth Leary, “What Can Managers Do for Creativity? Brokering Creativity in the Creative Industries,” International Journal of Cultural Policy 8, no. 1 (2002): 59.

75. Fietze, “Arbeitszufriedenheit und Persönlichkeit.”

76. Barrick and Mount, “The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance.”

77. Stefan Seidel, Felix Müller-Wienbergen, and Michael Rosemann, “Pockets of Creativity in Business Processes,” Communications of the Association for Information Systems 27, no. 8 (2010): 415–36.

78. Sperlich, “The Mixed Blessing of Autonomy in Digital Cultural Production,” and Klein-Avraham and Reich, “Out of the Frame.”

79. Petty, McGee, and Cavender, “A Meta-analysis of the Relationships between Individual Job Satisfaction and Individual Performance,” and Judge et al., “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship.”

80. Bob Hughes, “'Suits' and 'Creatives': Managerial Control, the Expropriation of Fun and the Manufacture of Consent,” Work Organisation, Labour & Globalisation 1, no. 1 (2007): 76–88.

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